Adabeberapa perbedaan antara sensor optik dan sensor Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging). Yang pertama adalah panjang gelombang. Sensor radar menggunakan gelombang elektromagnetik yg lebih panjang. Sehingga sensor ini mampu melakukan penetrasi atas partikel atmosferik, kayak awan, kabut, asap, debu, uap air, dan sebagainya. RADAR menggunakan gelombang radio sementara LiDAR menggunakan sinar cahaya, laser menjadi lebih tepat. • Ukuran dan posisi objek dapat diidentifikasi secara adil oleh RADAR, sementara LiDAR dapat memberikan pengukuran permukaan yang akurat. MengenalLIDAR dan IFSAR. DEM : Digital Elevation Model (DEM) adalah informasi fundamental untuk setiap tiga-dimensi (3-D) geo-spasialaktivitas. Banyak metodologi yang saat ini sedang digunakan untuk menghasilkan DEM untuk aplikasi yang berbeda pada berbagai skala, detail dan akurasi Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR) teknologi. sangat efektif dalam penciptaan besar daerah Namun ini bukan kondisi yang ketat. • Radar memiliki jangkauan lebih besar daripada sonar (lebih disukai di udara). • Radar memiliki respons lebih cepat (gelombang radio bergerak dengan kecepatan cahaya), sementara sonar lebih lambat dalam respons (kecepatan suara rendah, dan itu tergantung pada sifat-sifat medium, seperti suhu, tekanan Radarastronomi berbeda dari astronomi radio di kedua adalah pengamatan pasif dan mantan satu aktif. Sistem radar telah digunakan untuk berbagai studi tata surya. Transmisi radar baik dapat berbentuk pulsa atau kontinu. Vay Tiền Online Chuyển Khoản Ngay. Submarines use radar to navigate the deep seas. An autonomous vehicle, on the other hand, would use LiDAR. While they both have very similar names and are based on sensors, radar and LiDAR aren’t quite the same. Often, they are pitted against one another. Yet, both are also necessary in the future of automated vehicles. These depend on advanced sensor fusion technology to perceive their surrounding environments and keep occupants safe. This need led to a richer development of two systems used to underpin autonomous vehicle stacks LiDAR vs. radar. Let’s break down the pros and cons associated with each system, starting with explaining what a LiDAR is. What is LiDAR? LiDAR, or Light Detection and Ranging, is a remote sensing tool that uses light to detect how far away objects are from the sensor. By shooting out a pulse of light waves that bounce off surrounding objects, it can capture data that is refracted back to create a three-dimensional, 360° map of the surrounding area. LiDAR sensors are best known for capturing their environment in extreme detail, even better than the human eye depending on weather conditions and time of day. Here’s an example. Radar, or Radio Detection and Ranging, is a type of sensor that uses electromagnetic radio waves to determine the distance, angle, and speed of objects related to the source. These sensors can capture data from much further distances than LiDAR systems, but the resolution of these data is less precise. In fact, their results aren’t detailed as LiDARs, whose level of detail enables building exact 3D models of objects. LiDAR vs. Radar for Autonomous Driving 5 Key Differences As the similarity of these two acronyms suggest, LiDAR and radar share a nearly identical function in detecting signals and determining ranges based on the information collected. However, the differences between light waves and radio waves provide pros and cons to automated vehicle systems based on Accuracy Performance Wavelength Reach Cost Applications 1. Accuracy How precise is LiDAR vs radar? LiDAR tracks details with remarkable accuracy in three-dimensional space by capturing the position, size, and shape of objects relative to the sensor. When combined with advanced perception software, this LiDAR data can be analyzed from the “point cloud” and classified as objects and obstacles. By scanning the environment thousands of times every second, LiDAR helps AI make complex decisions around the intent of pedestrians, vehicles, and hazards. Radar is better suited for capturing information related to velocity and range. Stuck in a two-dimensional world, it cannot capture the breadth of information that LiDAR systems perceive. This means that in some cases, objects may be falsely identified or fail to be detected. 2. Performance One of the biggest problems previously facing LiDAR systems was their performance in direct sunlight or inclement weather. Because they rely on light waves to capture data, older LiDAR systems could become distorted by raindrops, snow, and fog. Innoviz’s LiDAR systems are resistant to these conditions. Radar does not rely on visual data, and thus performs optimally in all conditions. 3. Wavelength Reach Radio waves have much larger wavelengths than light waves—while they detect signals through the same principles, the wavelength frequency of radar vs. LiDAR gives each system different capabilities. The large wavelength of radio waves allows them to be transmitted at great distances. However, radars in passenger vehicles are limited by the size of the antenna. They can detect signals much further away, but the detail that they capture has low resolution. Light wavelengths are significantly smaller—LiDAR systems can capture details at a much smaller level from distances camera sensors cannot track. However, they do not have the same wavelength reach as radar systems. 4. Cost While LiDAR has clear advantages in terms of safety and performance, companies like Tesla have shied away from the technology completely. This is primarily due to one reason LiDAR’s price point. Radar may be more affordable to everyday consumers, but as LiDAR technology has evolved, the cost gap has narrowed dramatically. Solid-state LiDAR sensors are significantly more affordable and reliable than their predecessors as they have no moving parts. They’re costing hundreds, not thousands of dollars. As innovation continues and manufacturing occurs at scale, LiDAR will continue to grow less expensive. 5. Applications Radar is excellent for adaptive cruise control and monitoring cross traffic, blind spots, and collisions. However, radar cannot capture the breadth of information that LiDAR systems perceive. This means that objects can be falsely identified, or not appear if they are too small. These errors have led to crashes leading to several high-profile lawsuits that have resulted in agencies like the National Highway Traffic Safety Association stressing the need for increased federal regulation over these systems. LiDAR’s ability to precisely capture data makes it the superior choice for features like emergency brake assist, pedestrian detection, and collision avoidance. The granularity of detail vastly outperforms radar- and camera-based technologies. Why LiDAR Fills the Safety Gap for Autonomous Driving With one exception, the majority of autonomous vehicle manufacturers agree that LiDAR systems are the future of the industry. With higher accuracy and resolution than radar, LiDAR achieves the promise of autonomous vehicles a safer world without automotive crashes. Yet even though LiDAR carries significant advantages, radar still has a place in the self-driving cars of tomorrow through sensor fusion. Sensor fusion uses LiDAR, radar, ultrasonic sensors, and cameras in unison to give a complete picture of the environment around an autonomous vehicle. By leveraging multiple types of signals and “fusing” them together, the individual weaknesses of each sensor are negated. Simplified, radar may be used for long-distance hazard detection, LiDAR can detect pedestrians at night, and cameras can read traffic signs, all as part of a unified system. When it comes to autonomous vehicles, radar- and camera-based systems are not sufficient on their own. LiDAR and radar sensors paired together can help overcome what one cannot do on its own. Take Your Vehicle Further LiDAR Technology by Innoviz There are over six million car crashes each year in the United States. The vast majority of these are caused by human error. With LiDAR technology powering autonomous vehicles, needless tragedies like these could soon be a thing of the past. At Innoviz, we are working tirelessly on creating affordable and safe LiDAR systems for vehicles to make a crash-free future a reality for all. Contact our team to learn more about how we are blazing the trail for the safe roads of tomorrow. ABSTRAK Lidar adalah salah satu teknik penginderaan jauh dengan menggunakan sensor aktif. Kelebihan dari sensor lidar yang dapat mencari celah terkecil diantara kanopi dan memantul dari mulai pucuk pohon, mahkota, sampai permukaan tanah merupakan terobosan bermanfaat untuk pemetaan struktur vertikal hutan, estimasi stok karbon dan merupakan kemampuan yang diperlukan di dalam manajemen kehutanan. Kata Kunci Lidar, Manajemen kehutanan, Stok karbon, Struktur vertikal. Figures - uploaded by Deden SyarifudinAuthor contentAll figure content in this area was uploaded by Deden SyarifudinContent may be subject to copyright. Discover the world's research25+ million members160+ million publication billion citationsJoin for free Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 145 LiDAR PENGINDERAAN JAUH SENSOR AKTIF DAN APLIKASINYA DI BIDANG KEHUTANAN Oleh Irvan Sunandar 1, Deden Syarifudin 2 1 Magister Teknik Geodesi dan Geomatika, Fakultas Ilmu dan Teknologi Kebumian, Institut Teknologi Bandung, email irvan_san 2 Program Studi Perencanaan Wilayah dan Kota Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Pasundan, Bandung, email ABSTRAK Lidar adalah salah satu teknik penginderaan jauh dengan menggunakan sensor aktif. Kelebihan dari sensor lidar yang dapat mencari celah terkecil diantara kanopi dan memantul dari mulai pucuk pohon, mahkota, sampai permukaan tanah merupakan terobosan bermanfaat untuk pemetaan struktur vertikal hutan, estimasi stok karbon dan merupakan kemampuan yang diperlukan di dalam manajemen kehutanan. Kata Kunci Lidar, Manajemen kehutanan, Stok karbon, Struktur vertikal. I. PENDAHULUAN Mengelola hutan itu sangat sulit, terlebih menjaga kelestarian hutan membutuhkan energi lebih banyak. Sementara bukti-bukti terjadinya kerusakan hutan sudah sedemikian banyak, namun gambaran tentang kerusakannya masih tetap kabur karena data yang ada saling bertentangan, informasi yang tidak tepat, dan klaim serta bantahan yang saling bertentangan [FWI/GFW, 2001]. Oleh karena itu ada kebutuhan yang sangat mendesak untuk melakukan penilaian yang obyektif terhadap situasi hutan Indonesia, dan digunakan sebagai basis informasi yang benar bagi setiap individu atau organisasi dalam upaya melakukan perubahan positif. Ragam metode telah dipakai untuk menghasilkan angka-angka terkait kondisi hutan kita, dari metode pengukuran langsung ground measurement sampai dengan metode penginderaan jauh / inderaja remote sensing. Perbedaan informasi kehutanan terjadi karena tingkat akurasi yang berbeda diantara metode dan alat yang digunakan. Kita membutuhkan alat yang lebih akurat untuk mendapat data yang handal. Makalah ini membahas Lidar sebagai salah satu teknologi lama yang diutilisasi sehingga memiliki akurasi tinggi untuk inventarisasi hutan sebagai salah satu aplikasinya. Lidar Light Detection And Ranging adalah bagian sistem inderaja yang GPS dan INS memungkinkan geometri Lidar terukur dengan teliti. Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 146 menggunakan sensor aktif menggunakan sumber energi-nya sendiri, bukan dari pantulan sinar matahari, dan bekerja dengan membandingkan karakteristik sinyal transmisi dan pantulannya selisih waktu rambat pulsa, panjang gelombang, dan sudut pantulan [Wehr, 1999]. II. TEORI Prinsip Kerja LiDAR Lidar menggunakan laser light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation yaitu instrumen yang mengaplikasikan arus listrik kuat pada material lasable yang menghasilkan energi radiasi berupa emisi cahaya yang kuat. Emisi cahaya yang dihasilkan membentuk gelombang koheren sehingga beda fasa tetap konstan walaupun terjadi interferensi. Dibantu dengan perkembangan teknologi INS Inertial Navigation System yang akurat di akhir tahun ’90-an 0,008o presisi, membuat lidar memiliki akurasi yang memadai untuk digunakan di bidang pemetaan. INS dapat menghitung kontrol presisi dan merekam perubahan posisi wahana pesawat roll, pitch, yaw. Untuk posisi horisontalnya ditambahkan GPS Global Positioning Systems yang memberikan posisi geografis dari pesawat dengan ketelitian tinggi 10 – 50 cm, on the fly [GIM International, 2007]. Material penghasil cahaya karena tumbukan proton, umumnya material ini berupa gas atau kristal carbon dioxide, helium-neon, argon, rubies, dsb. Gambar 1. beberapa instrumen terkait Lidar dan alur pengolahan data-nya [Lohan, 2010]. Untuk mengukur jarak dari sebuah pancaran radiasi gelombang elektromagnetik dipergunakan ukuran beda fasa antara gelombang transmisi dan pantul. Beda fasa dipergunakan terlebih dahulu untuk mengukur waktu tempuh TL time of travel dengan rumusan berikut [Lohan, 2010] Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 147 Dimana n adalah jumlah gelombang penuh, T adalah waktu ditempuh cahaya yang diperlukan untuk menempuh satu panjang gelombang dan φ adalah beda fasa. Nilai n yang tidak diketahui dihitung oleh alat modulasi. Maka R atau jarak dapat dihitung dengan rumus Tabel 1. Salah satu spesifikasi Lidar komersil tinggi terbang, panjang gelombang, akurasi hor. & ver., repetisi laser, orientasi posisi, lebar scan, dsb [Optech, 2011]. Lidar dapat merekam beragam sinyal pantulan dari beberapa layer permukaan, sinyal primer dipantulkan oleh permukaan paling atas, sedangkan sinyal kedua dan seterusnya dipantulkan dari beberapa lapis permukaan tanaman rendah atau semak, pagar dan sebagainya dan sinyal akhir adalah pantulan dari permukaan tanah. Karakteristik ini membuat lidar menjadi satu-satunya sensor yang dapat membeda-bedakan citra ke dalam multi layer [Campbell, 2007]. Gambar 2. full waveform model, seluruh sinyal pantulan direkam sesuai urutan kedatangan, multi return [Optech, 2011]. Kelebihan teknologi Lidar dibandingkan teknologi inderaja lainnya pada saat ini adalah 1. Ketelitian tinggi higher accuracy, vertikal 5-15 cm & Horizontal accuracy 30-50 cm; 2. Akuisisi & Pengolahan data lebih cepat, akuisisi 1000 km2 dalam 12 jam & pembuatan DEM 1000 km2 dalam 24 jam; 3. Mengurangi human error, sebagian besar proses berlangsung otomatis; 4. Tidak tergantung cuaca dan matahari, akuisisi dapat dilakukan siang dan malam; 5. Tembus kanopi, pulsa Lidar dapat mencari celah-celah kecil diantara kanopi sehingga permukaan tanah dapat diukur juga; 6. Densitas data sangat tinggi, Lidar dapat memancarkan 167,000 pulsa per detik, lebih dari 24 titik per m2; 7. Data 3D & multiple returns, dapat mengetahui struktur vertikal; 8. Tidak memerlukan GCP, hanya diperlukan base station untuk titik referensi, bermanfaat untuk dipakai di area yang sulit didatangi; 9. Informasi tambahan, energi pantul memiliki nilai amplitudo yang berbeda tergantung reflektan-nya dan Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 148 informasi ini berguna untuk proses klasifikasi; 10. Biaya, biaya satuan Lidar lebih mahal namun produk dengan yang dihasilkan berakurasi tinggi sehingga cost benefit-nya tinggi. III. APLIKASI LIDAR DI BIDANG KEHUTANAN a. Manajemen Kehutanan Intisari dari manajemen hutan adalah menjaga keseimbangan antara proteksi hutan dan produksi hutan [Ibrahim, 2010]. Proteksi hutan adalah upaya kita untuk menjaga kondisi iklim dan kondisi fisik suatu negara pada level kenyamanan yang tinggi, terjaganya cadangan air tanah dan kesuburan tanah, konservasi keberagaman biologi hutan, serta kelestarian lingkungan. Sedangkan produksi hutan adalah upaya pemenuhan kebutuhan bahan baku industri kayu olahan, tambang, perkebunan yang diambil dari hutan agar tetap berada di level yang masih bisa ditolerir reasonable dan tidak merusak hutan. Kegiatan logging adalah usaha produksi hutan yang paling banyak membawa dampak negatif, seperti kerusakan cagar alam, erosi dan hilangnya serapan air, dan regenerasi pohon yang sangat lama. Karena itu diperlukan perencanaan matang dalam proses penebangan pohon secara selektif yang dapat mengurangi dampak dari metode logging konvensional di hutan tropis tertuang dalam Standard for Reduced Impact Logging [TFF, 2007]. TFF Tropical Forest Foundation merupakan organisasi nirlaba yang mendorong pengelola hutan untuk melakukan proses logging yang memperhatikan kelangsungan hutan sustainable, dengan benefit dari TFF berupa sertifikasi RIL Reduced Impact Logging untuk tiap kayu yang diproduksi serta jasa penghubung dengan pasar internasional FML Forest Market Linking Program. Syarat partisipan program di atas adalah melakukan 1. Pemetaan pada skala operasional, ▪ Peta topografi yang memuat kontur 1 m; 2. Inventarisasi sebelum penebangan, ▪ Peta permukaan kanopi; ▪ Peta tinggi pohon, disertai identifikasi lokasi pohon dan ukuran tiap-tiap pohon; 3. Perencanaan penebangan, ▪ Peta aliran hidrologi, untuk desain aliran sungai atau cadangan air; ▪ Peta jalan logging, untuk mengestimasi kerusakan akibat pembukaan koridor jalan; 4. Penebangan selektif, labelisasi kayu tebangan; 5. Penutupan area logging setelah penebangan. Oleh karena itu manajemen hutan memerlukan peta 3 dimensi yang akurat, dan tentunya dapat dipenuhi dengan menggunakan teknologi Lidar. Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 149 Gambar 3. potongan melintang hutan dari data Lidar dapat mengetahui usia hutan, seleksi pohon siap tebang dan area terdegradasi b. Struktur Vertikal Pohon Lidar dapat dipakai untuk mengumpulkan data yang menggambarkan karakteristik struktur vegetasi. Sebagai contoh adalah sistem SLICER Scanning Lidar Imager of Canopies by Echo Recovery, merupakan aplikasi lidar altimetri untuk mendapatkan detil informasi struktur vertikal dari kanopi vegetasi merupakan informasi esensial untuk memahami fungsi dari ekosistem karena kondisi lapangan yang sulit maka tidak mudah melakukan inspeksi lapangan secara langsung [Blair, 1994 dan Mallet, 2008]. Instrumen SLICER menggunakan radiasi near infrared µm sampai 10 – 15 m. Sebagian radiasi direfleksikan oleh kanopi, dan sebagian lagi dapat mencapai tanah ground melewati gap antar pohon. Keseluruhan sinyal laser dipelajari untuk memperoleh gambaran distribusi vertikal dari pantulan laser bagian-bagian kanopi foliar dan woody dan refleksi dari tanah. Footprint yang lebih besar 5 – 15 m didesain untuk mengcakup secara simultan keseluruhan pantulan dari kanopi dan permukaan tanah, termasuk rekaman detil dari struktur mahkota pohon per individu-nya. Selisih perbedaan waktu antara sinyal inisial dan akhir menjadi basis hitungan untuk mengestimasi rata-rata tinggi pohon [Nelson, 1988]. Karena data lidar merekam karakteristik struktur dari hutan tinggi pohon, kerapatan mahkota, ukuran mahkota, dan lain-lain [Munakata, 2010 dan Peterson, 2005], maka lidar berpotensi untuk mengamati struktur 3 dimensi dari formasi vegetasi yang sangat sulit diperoleh menggunakan sensor lainnya. Sebagai contoh [Means, 2000 dan Lim, 2003] meneliti kemampuan lidar dengan percobaan airborne lidar dengan ukuran footprint m sampai m di daerah barat Oregon. Ia mendapatkan bukti bahwa Lidar efektif untuk mengestimasi area basal, tinggi, volume dan kerapatan kanopi. Berikut ini studi yang dilakukan Dong untuk memodelkan pohon dan bentuk mahkota-nya menggunakan data Lidar, dari model dapat diklasifikasikan struktur knopi menjadi cone, half ellipsoid, dan hemisphere [Dong, 2010]. Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 150 Gambar 4. a data Lidar dari profil melintang b geometri permukaan luar f2x, y & permukaan dalam f1x, y c zona luar & dalam arsir; kelas model kanopi [Dong, 2010] Titik acak dibuat di dalam lingkaran dengan radius r di dalam bidang xy, dan ketinggian z menggunakan rumusan berikut Dimana t adalah angka acak antara 0 dan 1, rumus ke-1 di atas digunakan untuk ring dengan arsir gambar. Rumus ke-2 untuk area di atas f1x, y dan di bawah f2x, y. c. Pengukuran Stok Karbon Secara umum peningkatan konsentrasi gas rumah kaca termasuk diantaranya karbon dioksida CO2 akibat aktifitas manusia selalu dikaitkan sebagai faktor penyebab perubahan iklim dan dampak yang berasosiasi pada kesehatan, ketersediaan pangan, dan degradasi lingkungan hidup [Mendelsohn, 1999]. Kepedulian terhadap masalah global yang di induksi oleh peningkatan level CO2 di atmosfer, telah mengalihkan pusat perhatian kita pada peranan hutan sebagai media penyimpanan karbon dunia. Hutan memainkan peranan penting di dalam rantai hidup karbon global carbon cycle karena hutan menyimpan sebagian besar karbon yang dihasilkan aktifitas manusia di dalam biomasa tanaman dan juga dalam tanah [Falkowski, 2000]. Hutan Indonesia merupakan 40% luas areal hutan diseluruh Asia Tenggara, dan Sekitar 40 persen dari luas hutan pada tahun 1950 ini telah ditebang dalam waktu 50 tahun berikutnya. Jika dibulatkan, tutupan hutan di Indonesia turun dari 162 juta ha menjadi 98 juta ha [FWI/GFW, 2001]. Kebijakan di dalam mengurangi emisi karbon akibat deforestasi di hutan-hutan tropis membuka jalur insentif ekonomi dari negara-negara industri bagi negara-negara berkembang, salah satu-nya adalam program REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries. Konsep REDD adalah mendorong negara berkembang untuk memelihara hutan tropis-nya dari deforestasi atau upaya reduksi emisi karbon dibawah batas ambang peningkatan stok karbon berdasarkan referensi lampau dan proyeksi ke depan [CIFOR, 2008]. Negara yang telah berhasil menunjukkan penurunan emisi karbon dapat menjual stok karbon yang mereka miliki di carbon market kepada negara industri yang berminat membeli untuk mengurangi kewajiban mereka meringankan akibat polusi industri. Walaupun polusi industri adalah dosa yang tidak dapat dihapuskan melalui model barter Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 151 stok karbon, namun setidaknya solusi bersama ini dapat meringankan beban bumi kita dalam menyangga siklus karbon. REDD Indonesia telah mencatat keberhasilan di dalam menurunkan tingkat deforestisasi dari per tahun menjadi hal ini akan berlangsung lama dengan catatan dipakai teknik monitoring hutan yang akurat, transparan, realistik, dan objektif [Behrendt, 2011]. Hanya sedikit saja diantara teknologi yang mampu mengumpulkan parameter hutan dengan akurat dan waktu yang singkat. Langkah kebijakan mengurangi emisi karbon selanjutnya membutuhkan dukungan sains dalam implementasinya. Tantangan sains diantaranya adalah menentukan angka emisi, diperlukan pengetahuan berapa luas area hutan yang dibuka dan berapa cadangan karbon yang tersimpan di pohon-pohon tersebut. Teknologi yang ada berkisar dari pengukuran biomasa langsung melalui survei lingkar dada pohon, inventarisasi dengan sensor optik fotogrametri, citra satelit, radar sensor, dan laser sensor. Masing-masing pendekatan memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangannya tersendiri [Gibbs, 2007]. Cara langsung menghitung jumlah karbon yang tersimpan di hutan adalah dengan menebang pohon sebagai sampel, kemudian dikeringkan dan ditimbang biomasa-nya. Nilai karbon yang tersimpan adalah setengah dari bobot biomasa kering [Hese, 2005]. Walaupun metode ini sangat akurat namun pelaksanaannya membutuhkan ratusan pohon sampel, sangat destruktif, memakan waktu banyak dan tidak efesien untuk area yang luas level nasional. Studi lainnya mencoba menggunakan sensor optik untuk menghitung stok karbon. Pendekatannya dengan mengukur konversi lahan hutan tropis menjadi jenis lahan terbuka misalnya pertanian, permukiman deforestasi yang memicu pelepasan CO2 ke atmosfer karena hilangnya biomasa tanaman, respirasi tanah atau terjadi pengurangan uptake CO2 oleh tanaman. Hubungan antara perubahan lahan dan penurunan stok karbon disebutkan di dalam studi kasus pengamatan hutan di gunung Papandayan, Indonesia antara tahun 1994 sampai dengan 2001 oleh Pusat Penelitian Ekologi dan Biosistematik, ITB. Telah terjadi perubahan lahan hutan gunung Papandayan sebesar ha menjadi lahan pertanian yang mengakibatkan penurunan stok karbon sebesar mg atau sebesar 30% dari kondisi tahun 1994 = mg [Sulistyawati, 2006]. Studi ini masih menyisakan ketidakpastian karena seiring dengan waktu terjadi peningkatan stok karbon di atas permukaan tanah yang tidak terdeteksi sensor optik pasif yang hanya menerima pantulan kanopi serta kapasitasnya hanya citra 2 dimensi. Teknik lain dengan menggunakan Lidar, sensor aktif mengirimkan pulsa cahaya laser dan mengukur selisih waktu sinyal pantul untuk menghitung langsung tinggi pohon dan struktur vertikal-nya. Cahaya mencapai kanopi dan permukaan tanah, kemudian direfleksikan kembali menuju sensor. Kemudian stok karbon diestimasi dengan menerapkan hubungan alometrik antara tinggi dari Lidar dan data cadangan karbon dari sampel lapangan [Omasa, 2003 dan Hirata, 2009]. Gambar 4. puncak tertinggi tiap pohon dari DCHM Digital Canopy Height Model [Omasa, 2003]. Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 152 Gambar 5. Total Stok Karbon Dari Setiap Pohon, Area Poligon Menunjukkan Cakupan Kanopi Setiap Pohon [Omasa, 2003]. IV. SIMPULAN DAN TREND KE DEPAN Lidar berpotensi untuk mendukung beberapa kegiatan kehutanan, mulai dari inventarisasi pohon, mengukur struktur vertikal pohon dan mengestimasi stok karbon yang ada di hutan. Kemampuan pencitraan 3 dimensi merupakan kelebihan tersendiri dari Lidar, beragam model dengan mudah dapat dibuat untuk memahami ekosistem hutan berdasarkan data x, y, z dari Lidar. Untuk pengumpulan data dengan cakupan area hutan yang lebih luas serta teknik yang lebih ekonomis diperlukan sistem lidar yang menggunakan wahana satelit. Trend ke depan ini sudah dirintis oleh beberapa negara terutama Amerika melalui program DESDynI oleh NASA, hanya saja sangat disayangkan rencana ini dibatalkan oleh Presiden Obama [The Intel Hub, 2011], kita berharap di masa mendatang program tersebut bisa diwujudkan. V. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Behrendt, R., Jain, A. 2011. Airborne Laser Technology LiDAR Lights Up Forestry Mapping in Indonesia. V1 Magazine. Blair, J. B, Coyle, J. L, 1994. Optimization of an Airborne Laser Altimeter for Remote Sensing of Vegetation and Tree Canopies. Campbell, J. B. 2007. Introduction to Remote Sensing. New York The Guildford Press. CIFOR. 2008. Monitoring forest emissions A review of methods. Bogor, Indonesia Center for International Forestry Research. Dong, P. 2010. Sensitivity of LiDAR-derived three-dimensional shape signatures for individual tree crowns a simulation study. International Journal of Remote Sensing. Falkowski, P., dkk. 2000. The Global Carbon Cycle A Test of Our Knowledge of Earth as a System. Science Magazine. FWI/GFW. 2001. Keadaan Hutan Indonesia. Bogor, Indonesia Forest Watch Indonesia dan Washington Global Forest Watch Gibbs, H. K., Sandra, B., Niles, J. O., Foley, J. A. 2007. Monitoring and Estimating Tropical Carbon Stocks making REDD a Reality. Environmental Research Letter IOP Publishing. GIM International. 2007. Product Survey Airborne LiDAR Sensors. Hese, S., dkk. 2005. Global Biomass Mapping for An Inproved Understanding of the CO2 balance. Remote Sensing Environment. Hirata, Y. 2004. The effects of footprint size and sampling density of airborne laser scanning to extract individual trees in mountainous terrain. International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. Hirata, Y., Furuya, N., Suzuki, M., Yamamoto, H. 2008. Estimation of stand attributes in Cryptomeria japonicaand Chamaecyparis obtusa stands from single tree detection using small-footprint airborne LiDAR data. Journal of Forest Planning. Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 153 Hirata, Y., Furuya, N., Suzuki, M., Yamamoto, H. 2009. Airborne laser scanning in forest management individual tree identification and laser pulse penetration in a stand with different levels of thinning. Forest Ecology and Management Ibrahim, S. 2009. Forest Management and Fragmentation in Tropical Forest. Selangor Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Lim, K., dkk. 2003. LiDAR Remote Sensing of Forest Structure. Progress in Physical Geography. Lohan, B. 2010. Airborne Altimetric LiDAR Principle, Data collection, processing and Applications. India IIT Kanpur, Departemen of Civil Engineering. Mallet, C., Bretar, F. 2008. Full-Waveform Topographic Lidar State of The Art. Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing. Means, J. E, dkk. 2000. Predicting Forest Stand Characteristics with Airborne Scanning Lidar. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing. Measures, R, M. 1984. Laser Remote Sensing Fundamentals And Applications. John Wiley & Sons. Mendelsohn, R., Ariel, D. 1999. Climate Change, Agriculture, and Developing Countries Does Adaption Matter?. The World Bank Research. Munakata, K., dkk. 2010. Practical Application For Estimating The Crown Density of Conifers Using Lidar Data. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science. Nelson, R. , 1988. Using Airborne Lasers to Estimate Forest Canopy and Stand Characteristics. Journal of Forestry. Omasa, K, dkk. 2003. Accurate Estimation of Forest Carbon Stocks by 3-D Remote Sensing of Individual Trees. Environmental Science Technology. Peterson, B., dkk. 2005. Use of LiDAR for Forestry Inventory and Forest Management Application. Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Forest Inventory and Analysis Symposium. Sulistyawati, E., dkk. 2006. Estimation of Carbon Stock at Landscape Level using Remote Sensing a Case Study in Mount Papandayan. Indonesia Environmental Technology and Management Conference. TFF. 2007. Standard for Reduced Impact Logging. USA Tropical Forest Foundation. Watershed Sciences, Inc. 2010. LiDAR Classification and Vegetation Analysis. Wehr, A., Lohr, U. 1999. Airborne Laser Scanning – An Introduction And Overview. Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing. Zimble, D, A., dkk. 2003. Characterizing Vertical Forest Structure Using Small-footprint Airborne LiDAR. Remote Sensing of Environment. Bandung, Juli 2014 Volume 1 Nomor 2 ISSN 2355-6110 154 ... Seperti contoh yang terjadi pada pesawat Lion Air dengan nomor penerbangan JT-633 tujuan Jakarta -Bengkulu yang menabrak tiang bendera pada hari rabu tanggal 7 November 2018 yang lalu [7]. Selanjutnya ada Pesawat Lion Air Boieng-737 900 ER dengan nomor penerbangan JT-358 yang mana bersenggolan di parkiran dengan pesawat jenis yang sama dengan nomor penerbangan JT-796 pada Februari 2011 di bandara Soekarno-Hatta [8]. Banyak orang yang berspekulasi tentang penyebab dari kecelakaan tersebut yang mana jika di simpulkan hal tersebut tidak akan lari dari penjelasan tentang System Eror atau Human Eror. ...Denny DermawanPaulus SetiawanAgus BasukestiRiski Nur MuhammadThe growth of air transportation and technological developments is getting faster every year. This causes airport services to exceed the ability to provide facilities to meet growth adequately. In this case, it cannot be denied that there are always undesirable things that happen unexpectedly such as airplane accidents which are not only always in the air when flying, there are also many cases of plane accidents at the ground whether it's at the landing or parking process. Therefore, a Visual Docking Guidance System VDGS tool was designed using the TF Mini LiDAR sensor and programmed for the aircraft parking system at the airport to identify and guide pilots to find the right position when parking. This tool is able to give guidance information on the aircraft position. A >>> sign, the plane must move to the right and the // \\ sign as an indicator the aircraft is in the middle position of parking stand. The results showed that the Visual Docking Guidance System VDGS using the LiDAR sensor with a distance specification of 10m is a fairly good level of accuracy and the error obtained from testing the distance measurement tool and actual distance has an error of 0-0,7368% with an average error of Persamaan 2 adalah persamaan untuk mencari jarak berdasarkan nilai TL yang sudah di ketahui. Dimana c adalah kecepatan cahaya pada medium antara lidar dan benda yang akan di ukur jaraknya [4]. ...... Once the ToF value is determined, the distance D can be calculated. Equation 2 is a formula for calculating the distance based on known ToF, where C is the value of the light speed in the air [9]. ...Fardiansyah Nur AzizMasduki ZakarijahPerkembangan digitalisasi saat ini begitu pesat. Adanya digitalisasi menyebabkan proses pengukuran jarak dapat dilakukan tanpa menyentuh objek yang diukur. Salah satu komponen untuk pengukuran jarak yang banyak tersedia di pasaran adalah sensor light detection and ranging LiDAR. Beberapa penelitian sebelumnya terkait penerapan sensor LiDAR sudah dilakukan, seperti untuk robot automated guided vehicle AGV, quadcopter, dan pemetaan vegetasi tropis. Penelitian-penelitian sebelumnya berfokus pada penerapan sensor LiDAR dan belum menguji secara detail akurasi beserta karakteristiknya. Terdapat kemungkinan bahwa kinerja dari komponen kurang sesuai dengan spesifikasi data teknis yang dituliskan. Makalah ini menyajikan hasil pengujian kinerja sensor LiDAR jenis TF-Mini LiDAR untuk pengukuran jarak. Pengujian sensor TF-Mini LiDAR ini menggunakan metode eksperimen. Kinerja sensor dilihat berdasarkan pembacaan jarak maksimal, tingkat akurasi, pengaruh warna objek, kemiringan, dan jenis material objek yang dibaca. Hasil pengujian menunjukkan bahwa kinerja sensor TF-Mini LiDAR memiliki tingkat akurasi 3,17% pada rentang 0,3 m sampai 6 m serta 3,27% pada rentang 6 m sampai 12 m dengan jarak pembacaan maksimal hingga 10 m. Warna biru dan bahan besi merupakan warna serta bahan terbaik yang dapat dibaca oleh sensor, dengan rata-rata error masing-masing sebesar 2,78% dan 3,22%. Hasil pembacaan jarak pada objek datar dengan kemiringan 10° sampai 80° kuadran 1 akan melebihi jarak sebenarnya seiring dengan bertambahnya sudut kemiringan objek dengan rata-rata error yang dihasilkan sebesar 7%. Untuk objek datar dengan kemiringan 100° sampai 170° kuadran 2 diperoleh rata-rata error sebesar 2,75%. Selain itu, makin besar sudut kemiringan objek, makin akurat pembacaan jaraknya. Berdasarkan hasil pengujian tersebut, dapat diketahui bahwa sensor TF-Mini LiDAR dapat membaca jarak dengan lebih akurat ketika objek yang terdeteksi berada pada rentang jarak 0,5 m sampai 10 m dengan warna dan bahan objek yang tidak menyerap cahaya. Selain itu, posisi objek yang terdeteksi dalam keadaan lurus.... Citra yang berasal dari sensor multispectral Landsat TM dan SPOT dan Hyperspectral dapat memberikan informasi mengenai jenis batuan bumi. Selain Landsat dan SPOT yang terbaik saat ini dalam deteksi fisik spatial saat ini adalah LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging menggunakan laser light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation yaitu instrumen yang mengaplikasikan arus listrik kuat pada material lasabl dengan deteksi aktif Sunandar & Syarifudin, 2018. ...Aris RositaDeasy AryantoFitria NoorainyDwiyana PermadiGerakan tanah seringkali menimbulkan bencana pada daerah permukiman dan bahkan menimbulkan korban jiwa. Gerakan tanah sering terjadi pada daerah dengan gugus vulkano muda seperti di daerah Jawa Barat terutama di Wilayah Ciamis pada kelerengan yang curam. Kesiapsiagaan ini tentunya harus di siapkan secara menyeluruh bergantung pada kerentanan kejadian gerakan tanah dan juga waktu terjadinya bencana yang pada umumnya terjadi pada musim hujan setelah masa kering yang ekstrim melebihi seratus hari. Tulisan ini mencoba membahas sisi kebijakan dan akademik yang perlu disiapkan dalam menghadapi bencana pada BNPB Kabupaten Ciamis dari berbagai kejadian gerakan tanah yang terjadi daerah Nasol Kabupaten Ciamis. Melalui studi penelusuran dokumen dan kepustakaan sebagai metoda yang digunakan dalam membahas konsep dan strategi penanganan bencana gerakan tanah ini, kami memaparkan hal penting yang perlu dicermati dalam kebijakan pemerintah Kabupaten Ciamis. hasil yang diperoleh adalah secara empirik gerakan tanah di daerah Nasol menunjukan kerusakan yang tinggi pada daerah permukiman, kelerengan dan sangat membahayakan permukiman menempati di kelerengan lebih rendah. Keadaan ini harus terinformasikan dengan baik kepada masyarakat dan arahan mitigasi bencana yang diperlukan dalam penanganannya. Disisi lain adalah konsep BNPB harus dapat menentukan prioritas dari semua kejadian bencana di Kabupaten Ciamis adalah gerakan tanah merupakan ancaman terdepan pada saat pergantian has not been able to resolve any references for this publication. IntroductionLidar and radar are sensing technologies that have revolutionised a wide range of industries, from transportation and aviation to environmental monitoring and disaster management. The use of sensing technologies like lidar and radar has transformed a variety of sectors, including transportation, aviation, environmental monitoring, and disaster management. Although both technologies are extremely useful for finding things and determining distances, they operate on separate principals and have their own advantages and drawbacks. This article compares and contrasts lidar and radar technology in-depth, examining important distinctions, benefits, and drawbacks, as well as addressing potential applications for each. We intend to offer helpful insights for experts, academics, and fans trying to understand and utilise lidar and radar in their respective domains as we delve into the underlying concepts of these technologies and assess their strengths and shortcomings. Lidar An OverviewLight Detection and Ranging, or Lidar, is a type of remote sensing that makes use of laser light to measure distances and produce incredibly accurate maps of the area. Lidar devices can produce precise and accurate distance measurements by emitted laser light pulses and measuring the time it takes for the light to bounce back after hitting an technology has evolved significantly since its inception in the early 1960s, driven by advancements in lasers, computing, and data processing is a potent form of remote sensing that provides three-dimensional, high-resolution data that is crucial for a variety of applications, including topography, forestry, and autonomous vehicle navigation. Due to its use of light, Lidar has the primary benefit over other remote sensing technologies in that it can produce extremely accurate and detailed 3D maps of the environment. Since light has a shorter wavelength than the radio waves employed by radar, it can more accurately identify tiny things. In applications like autonomous vehicle navigation, where accurate and thorough mapping of the surroundings is crucial for safe and effective operation, high-resolution data from lidar is particularly helpful. Lidar is especially helpful for topographic and forestry applications, where comprehensive 3D maps of the terrain and plants can aid in management and planning. Overall, Lidar is a helpful technology for many applications that need precise and accurate mapping of the environment due to its high-resolution and three-dimensional Components and OperationA lidar system typically comprises three main components a laser source, a scanner, and a detector. The laser source emits pulses of light, which travel through the atmosphere until they encounter an object, such as a tree, building, or vehicle. The light then reflects off the object and returns to the lidar system, where the scanner collects the returning light and directs it to the detector. The detector measures the time it takes for the light to make a round trip from the lidar system to the object and back, enabling the calculation of the distance to the object. Short bursts of light, often in the near-infrared region, are produced by the laser source and travel through the atmosphere until they come into contact with an object. The resolution of the lidar system is determined by the frequency of the laser pulse; higher frequencies produce better resolution but less a laser pulse hits an object, such as a tree or a structure, the light bounces back to the lidar system. The scanner, which is often a revolving mirror or a micro-electromechanical system MEMS, collects and directs the returned light to the detector. The detector is a very sensitive instrument that detects the amount of time light takes to travel back and forth between the lidar system and the item. The time-of-flight principle is used to calculate the distance to an object by taking the speed of light as a devices release dozens or even millions of pulses per second to create a thorough map of the environment. This generates a massive amount of data, which is then utilised to generate a very accurate and detailed 3D map of the surroundings. The map's resolution is determined by the number of pulses emitted, the frequency of the laser, and the detector's systems operate on the time-of-flight principle, which calculates distance based on the speed of light and the time it takes for the light pulse to travel between the lidar system and the object. By emitting thousands or even millions of pulses per second, lidar systems can generate a vast amount of data, resulting in detailed, high-resolution maps of the are several types of lidar systems, each with its own advantages and specific applications. This information is used to generate a 3D map of the environment, which can be used for a variety of applications. Airborne lidar systems are mounted on aircraft or drones and are commonly used for large-scale topographic surveys and vegetation analysis. Terrestrial lidar systems are ground-based and can be either stationary or mobile, depending on the application. These systems are often used for infrastructure inspection, mining, and cultural heritage documentation. Stationary lidar systems are used to scan the environment from a fixed location, while mobile lidar systems are typically mounted on vehicles and are used for applications such as road and rail corridor mapping, as well as autonomous vehicle reading How to Choose the Right LiDAR Sensor for Your ProjectRadar An OverviewRadar, which stands for Radio Detection and Ranging, is a sensing technology that uses radio waves to detect objects and measure their distances, velocities, and other characteristics. Radar systems emit radio waves that travel through the atmosphere and bounce back when they encounter an object. By analysing the time it takes for the radio waves to return and the frequency shift caused by the Doppler effect, radar systems can determine an object's distance, speed, and direction. First developed in the early 20th century, radar technology has been continuously refined and improved, leading to its widespread use across various industries such as aviation, meteorology, and military transmitter generates the radio signal, which is then directed to the antenna for transmission. The antenna emits the signal into the environment and receives the reflected signal when it bounces back from an object. The receiver then collects and amplifies the reflected signal before passing it on to the signal processor. Radar technology is a widely used sensing technology that uses radio waves to detect and measure the characteristics of objects. It is used in various applications, such as aviation, meteorology, and military technology is versatile and robust, capable of operating effectively in diverse conditions and environments. Its core advantage being its ability to operate in all weather conditions, but it has lower resolution compared to lidar systems and the potential for electronic interference. Additionally, it can interfere with other electronic devices and may cause interference with other radar systems operating in the vicinity. While it may not offer the same high-resolution data as lidar, radar's ability to penetrate through various materials and withstand interference from atmospheric conditions makes it suitable for a wide range of applications. Furthermore, radar systems are generally more affordable and simpler to implement than lidar systems, making them an attractive choice for many industries and use Components and OperationA satellite over earthA radar system consists of three main components a transmitter, a receiver, and an antenna. Radar technology has become an essential tool in various industries due to its ability to detect and measure objects' characteristics, such as distance, velocity, and size. With advancements in technology, radar systems have become more sophisticated, capable of operating in different frequency bands, and incorporating advanced signal processing techniques to improve their accuracy and reliability. High-frequency radar systems, such as X-band and Ku-band radars, are commonly used for weather monitoring, air traffic control, and military surveillance. Low-frequency radar systems, such as L-band and S-band radars, are better suited for long-range detection and tracking of large objects. Synthetic aperture radar SAR is also used for environmental monitoring, disaster management, and military array radars are commonly used in air defence systems and aerospace applications. Radar technology has become an essential tool in various industries due to its ability to detect and measure objects' characteristics, such as distance, velocity, and transmitter generates radio waves, which are emitted by the antenna into the environment. When the radio waves encounter an object, they reflect off the object and return to the radar system, where the antenna captures the returning waves and directs them to the receiver. The receiver processes the received radio waves to extract information about the object, such as its distance, velocity, and systems are essential tools used to detect and track objects, relying on the Doppler effect, a fundamental principle in physics that describes the frequency shift of waves due to the relative motion between the source and the observer. When an object moves towards or away from the radar system, the reflected radio waves experience a shift in frequency due to the Doppler effect, which is proportional to the relative velocity between the object and the radar system. This shift is proportional to the relative velocity between the object and the radar system and can be used to determine the object's speed accurately. The Doppler effect is a critical principle that underlies the operation of radar systems. By analysing the time it takes for the radio waves to return and the frequency shift caused by the Doppler effect, radar systems can provide valuable information about the detected example, the distance between the radar system and the object can be calculated based on the time delay between the transmitted and received signals. Radar systems use sophisticated algorithms and processing techniques to extract and interpret the information from the reflected radio waves accurately. The development of radar technology has led to significant advances in fields such as meteorology, aviation, and defence, and it continues to be a vital tool for scientific research and practical technology has evolved significantly since its inception, leading to the development of different types of radar systems. Ground-based radar systems are used for air traffic control, weather monitoring, and military surveillance. . Ground-based radar systems are commonly used for air traffic control, weather monitoring, and military surveillance. Airborne radar systems, which are mounted on aircraft, are used for applications such as aerial mapping, terrain-following navigation, and collision avoidance. Satellite-based radar systems are employed for Earth observation, remote sensing, and global positioning purposes. Each type of radar system has unique capabilities, making it suitable for different tasks and radar systems are also used for military purposes, such as detecting and tracking enemy aircraft and monitoring ground movements. Satellite-based radar systems are mounted on satellites and can provide high-resolution images of the Earth's surface, even in areas where optical sensors cannot operate due to cloud cover or darkness. Global positioning systems GPS use satellite-based radar to determine the location and velocity of receivers on the Earth's surface. There are several types of radar systems, each with its unique capabilities and applications. The choice of the radar system depends on the intended use, the range, resolution, and sensitivity required, and the environmental reading Why Radar Sensors are Powerful Enablers for Intelligent IoT ApplicationsComparing Lidar and Radar TechnologiesWhen examining the key differences between lidar and radar technologies, it is essential to consider their fundamental principles, operational methodologies, and performance characteristics. Both technologies are employed for detecting objects and measuring distances, but they use different types of waves to achieve these objectives. Lidar and radar are two remote sensing technologies that are used for object detection and mapping. Their basic ideas, sensing capabilities, and applications differ. Radar technology detects objects by transmitting and receiving radio waves, whereas Lidar detects objects by transmitting and receiving laser pulses. The Doppler effect is used to identify the object's speed and location, while the time-of-flight concept is used to calculate the object's distance and location. Radar systems can detect moving objects with high precision and provide useful information about their speed and and lidar technologies are critical remote sensing technologies used for object detection and mapping. Radar technology is known for its ability to identify moving objects with great accuracy through air conditions, whereas lidar technology produces high-resolution three-dimensional photographs of the environment, making it suitable for mapping and surveying applications. The technology used is determined by the intended use, the climatic circumstances, and the sensing capabilities required. Radar technology is employed in applications such as military, aviation, weather monitoring, and traffic control, whereas lidar technology is used in mapping, surveying, autonomous driving, and robots. The technology used is determined by the intended use, the climatic circumstances, and the sensing capabilities and ResolutionAccuracy and resolution are crucial factors when evaluating the performance of lidar and radar systems. Lidar, with its use of laser light, offers higher resolution data compared to radar, which uses radio waves. The shorter wavelength of light, typically in the range of 700-1550 nanometers, allows lidar systems to detect smaller objects and create more detailed, high-resolution maps. In contrast, radar systems operate at much longer wavelengths, typically in the range of centimetres to metres, leading to comparatively lower resolution accuracy of distance measurements also varies between the two technologies. Lidar systems can achieve centimetre-level accuracy in distance measurements, thanks to their precise time-of-flight calculations and the high-speed nature of light. Radar systems, while still offering accurate distance measurements, generally exhibit lower accuracy compared to lidar, particularly when measuring distances to smaller objects or in cluttered is important to note that the superior resolution and accuracy of lidar systems come at the cost of increased complexity and expense. Lidar systems typically require more sophisticated hardware and processing capabilities, which can drive up costs and limit their accessibility for certain applications. Radar systems, on the other hand, are often more affordable and straightforward to implement, making them a popular choice for a wide range of industries and use to Weather ConditionsA weather forecastThe performance of sensing technologies like lidar and radar can be significantly affected by weather conditions, such as fog, rain, and snow. Understanding the sensitivity of each technology to these environmental factors is crucial when selecting the appropriate system for a particular of Lidar to Weather ConditionsLidar systems, which rely on light waves, are more susceptible to interference from atmospheric conditions than radar systems. The presence of fog, rain, or snow can scatter, absorb, or reflect the emitted laser light, leading to reduced measurement accuracy and overall system performance. For instance, the attenuation of laser light in fog can be as high as 200 dB/km, substantially limiting the effective range and resolution of a lidar system under such reduction in the intensity of light as it passes through a material, such as air or water, is referred to as attenuation. Laser light scattering occurs when light waves interact with tiny particles in the atmosphere, resulting in lower lidar resolution and accuracy. Researchers and engineers have devised numerous ways and strategies to increase the performance of lidar systems in foggy environments in order to meet these problems. Longer-wavelength laser light, which is less vulnerable to scattering and absorption by air particles, is one lidar systems can be outfitted with sophisticated signal processing algorithms and filtering techniques to eliminate noise and interference generated by atmospheric conditions. Lidar systems may nevertheless give significant information in adverse environmental conditions with careful design and excellent signal processing techniques, making them a powerful tool for wide range of applications. In contrast, radar systems, which use radio waves, are generally more robust against adverse weather conditions. Radio waves have longer wavelengths than light, allowing them to penetrate through various materials, including fog, rain, and snow, with less attenuation. As a result, radar systems can maintain their performance under challenging weather conditions, providing more reliable and consistent data. This characteristic is particularly advantageous for applications that require continuous operation, such as air traffic control and meteorological and CoverageAnother critical aspect to consider when comparing lidar and radar technologies is their range and coverage capabilities. The effective range of a sensing system is the maximum distance at which it can accurately detect objects, while the coverage refers to the spatial extent of the area that can be surveyed by the Range and CoverageLidar systems can achieve impressive range and coverage, particularly when mounted on airborne platforms such as aircraft and drones. The range of a lidar system is primarily influenced by the laser pulse energy, the detector sensitivity, and the atmospheric conditions. Lidar systems are optical remote sensing devices that utilise laser pulses to determine the distance to a target surface. They are commonly used in mapping, surveying, and remote sensing applications, especially when mounted on airborne platforms such as aircraft and drones. The laser pulse energy is a critical parameter in determining the maximum range of a lidar system, as it allows for the generation of a more energetic laser beam. The detector sensitivity is also crucial in determining the maximum range of a lidar system, as it determines the minimum amount of light that can be detected by the system. In optimal atmospheric conditions, airborne lidar systems can achieve ranges of up to several kilometres, providing broad coverage for large-scale mapping and surveying applications. However, adverse weather conditions can significantly impact the performance of lidar systems, reducing their effective range and as mentioned earlier, the performance of lidar systems can be significantly impacted by adverse weather conditions, which may reduce their effective range and systems offer substantial range and coverage capabilities, even in challenging weather conditions. Large systems can have ranges of up to several hundred kilometres, allowing them to monitor vast areas effectively. While they may not provide the same high-resolution data as lidar, their robust performance and extensive coverage capabilities make them suitable for a wide variety of maximum distance at which a radar system can detect an item is referred to as its radar range. It is determined by a number of parameters, including the radar transmitter's strength, the frequency of the electromagnetic waves employed, the size of the radar antenna, and the atmospheric conditions. The strength of the electromagnetic waves emitted by the radar is determined by the power of the radar transmitter, while the frequency of the electromagnetic waves employed impacts the range. Lower frequency waves have shorter wavelengths and are therefore more easily absorbed by atmospheric conditions, whereas higher frequency waves require larger antennas to get the same level of clarity. Another important component in influencing the range of a radar system is the size of the radar atmospheric factors such as rain, fog, and other weather patterns might affect a radar system's range. A radar system's range and coverage are determined by various elements, including the strength of the radar transmitter, the frequency of the electromagnetic waves employed, the size of the radar antenna, atmospheric conditions, the antenna's field of view, and the radar system's height. These aspects must be balanced in order to develop a radar system that fits the specific needs of its application, whether it is for air traffic control, weather forecasting, or military surveillance. A radar system's range and coverage are determined by various elements, including the strength of the radar transmitter, the frequency of the electromagnetic waves employed, the size of the radar antenna, atmospheric conditions, the antenna's field of view, and the radar system's and ComplexityWhen evaluating lidar and radar technologies, it is crucial to consider the cost and complexity associated with implementing, operating, and maintaining these systems. Each technology has its unique set of challenges and requirements, which can significantly influence the total cost of ownership and the ease of integration into various and Complexity of Lidar SystemsLidar systems are generally more expensive and complex than radar systems. The increased cost can be attributed to several factors, including the need for high-precision lasers, sensitive detectors, and advanced data processing capabilities. Moreover, the mechanical components required for the scanning process, such as rotating mirrors or optomechanical systems, can add to the overall complexity and cost of the its cost and complexity are still significant barriers to widespread adoption. One of the main factors contributing to the cost of Lidar systems is the high cost of the lasers used in these systems, which must be highly precise and emit light with a specific wavelength. Additionally, the complex optics required to direct and focus the laser beams must be costly and difficult to manufacture. The complexity of Lidar systems is also a significant barrier to their systems require a high degree of integration between the laser, optics, and sensor components to ensure accurate measurements. The calibration and alignment process can be time-consuming and require highly skilled technicians, making Lidar systems challenging to manufacture and maintain. To reduce the cost and complexity of Lidar systems, researchers and manufacturers are exploring new materials and manufacturing processes that can reduce the cost of laser and optical components and new algorithms and software that can more efficiently process and analyse Lidar data. As technology continues to evolve, new materials, manufacturing processes, and software algorithms are being developed to reduce the cost and complexity of Lidar systems, making them more accessible to a broader range of applications. In addition to the initial investment in hardware, lidar systems can also incur higher operational and maintenance costs. The high-resolution data generated by lidar systems demands more processing power and storage capacity, which can lead to increased costs for data management and analysis. Furthermore, the sensitivity of lidar systems to environmental conditions may necessitate more frequent calibration and maintenance to ensure optimal and Complexity of Radar SystemsRadar systems, on the other hand, are generally less expensive and less complex than lidar systems. The primary components of a radar system, such as the transmitter, receiver, and antenna, are typically more straightforward and cost-effective to produce compared to the high-precision lasers and detectors required for lidar. Moreover, radar systems do not typically require complex mechanical components for scanning, as electronic beamforming can be used to steer the radar beam without the need for moving and maintenance costs associated with radar systems are also generally lower than those of lidar systems. Radar systems are more robust in adverse weather conditions, reducing the need for frequent calibration and maintenance. Additionally, the lower resolution data generated by radar systems requires less processing power and storage capacity, resulting in lower data management and analysis smaller antennas can detect tiny objects and produce a more focused beam of electromagnetic waves, but they are more expensive and take up more room to install. Furthermore, the cost of signal processing equipment, such as digital signal processors and specialised software, can greatly increase the total cost of a radar system. Finally, the complexity of radar systems is a substantial impediment to their widespread implementation. To ensure precise measurements, radar systems require a high level of integration between the transmitter, antenna, receiver, and signal processing equipment. Calibration and alignment are time-consuming processes that need highly competent personnel, making them difficult to manufacture and systems also generate a great amount of data, which must be processed and analysed. To minimise the cost and complexity of radar systems, researchers and manufacturers are investigating novel materials and manufacturing processes that can lower the cost of radar components, as well as new algorithms and software that can process and interpret radar data more efficiently. To summarise, radar systems are a potent remote sensing technology with great precision and accuracy for a wide range of applications, but their high cost and complexity remain substantial impediments to wider conclusion, while lidar systems offer superior accuracy and resolution, they are often more expensive and complex to implement and maintain compared to radar systems. Conversely, radar systems provide more robust performance in challenging weather conditions and are generally more cost-effective, making them a popular choice for a wide range of applications. When selecting a sensing technology, it is essential to consider the specific requirements of the intended application and weigh the trade-offs between cost, complexity, performance, and environmental of Lidar and Radar TechnologiesBoth lidar and radar technologies have a wide range of applications across various industries, leveraging their unique strengths and capabilities. While some applications may rely primarily on one technology, others might benefit from a combination of both lidar and radar systems, taking advantage of the complementary nature of their respective ApplicationsA GPS applicationLidar technology has been increasingly adopted in numerous fields due to its high-resolution data and precise measurements. Some of the most common lidar applications includeTopographic MappingThe process of making maps that depict the shape and elevation of the Earth's surface is known as topographic mapping. Lidar has become a popular choice for topographic mapping, particularly in the field of remote sensing. Airborne lidar systems are capable of capturing high-resolution elevation data, allowing for the creation of detailed and accurate digital elevation models DEMs of large areas. These DEMs can be used for various purposes, such as flood risk assessment, urban planning, and infrastructure technology has transformed topographic mapping by allowing the generation of high-resolution digital elevation models DEMs that provide precise and detailed information about the Earth's surface. Because they can cover huge areas rapidly and efficiently, airborne Lidar systems are ideal for topographic mapping. Lidar can capture elevation data with less than 10 cm vertical accuracy, making it perfect for applications like flood risk assessment and infrastructure building. Lidar data can also be used to generate detailed 3D models of buildings, bridges, and other structures, which can be utilised for construction planning and VehiclesLidar is also a key technology in the development of autonomous vehicles. By providing high-resolution, three-dimensional data about the vehicle's surroundings, lidar systems enable the accurate detection and tracking of obstacles, pedestrians, and other vehicles, ensuring safe navigation in complex environments. Lidar is often combined with other sensing technologies, such as cameras and radar, to provide a comprehensive and robust perception system for autonomous technology, which uses lasers to produce a 3D map of the surroundings, has become a vital component of autonomous vehicle systems, delivering accurate and detailed information on the surrounding objects and terrain. Lidar sensors, which are normally positioned on the car's roof or sides, provide a 360-degree view of the surroundings. They send out light pulses that bounce off things in the environment, and the time it takes for the light to return to the sensor is used to determine the distance and position of the items. These readings are coupled with other sensor data, such as GPS coordinates and camera images, to provide a real-time map of the vehicle's surroundings. One of the primary benefits of employing Lidar in autonomous vehicles is its ability to deliver accurate distance measurements, allowing the vehicle to detect and avoid obstacles even in low-light or adverse weather things, such as walkers or bikers, can be detected with lidar sensors, which are difficult to detect with other sensors. Lidar sensors, which provide accurate and detailed information about the vehicle's surroundings, are a vital component of autonomous vehicle systems. They are extremely dependable and can work in a wide range of climatic conditions, making them perfect for use in self-driving cars. The cost of using Lidar in driverless cars is, however, one of the major problems. Lidar sensors can be costly, and processing the data they acquire requires a large amount of computing power. However, continual technological advancements are driving down costs and boosting their availability for usage in self-driving and Cultural HeritageLidar has proven valuable in the field of archaeology and cultural heritage preservation. High-resolution lidar data can reveal hidden structures, ancient settlements, and landscape features that are otherwise difficult to detect using traditional surveying methods. This non-invasive technology allows for the study and documentation of archaeological sites without causing damage to delicate artefacts or uses laser pulses to create high-resolution, three-dimensional maps of the terrain and objects on the ground. It has the potential to revolutionise the way we study archaeological sites and cultural landscapes, as it can penetrate dense vegetation and foliage, create detailed maps of entire landscapes, and create highly detailed models of individual archaeological features. It can also detect subtle variations in the terrain, which can be used to identify buried features such as pits, ditches, and walls. Despite its limitations, lidar has the potential to revolutionise the way we study archaeological sites and cultural landscapes by providing detailed, high-resolution maps of these areas, helping us better understand the past and preserve our cultural heritage for future and Vegetation AnalysisLidar is widely used in forestry and vegetation analysis to assess the health, composition, and biomass of forests. By penetrating the tree canopy, lidar can provide detailed information on the vertical structure of forests, allowing researchers to estimate tree height, crown diameter, and leaf area index. This data can be used to monitor forest health, manage resources, and support conservation technology is becoming increasingly popular in forestry and vegetation analysis, as it provides a high-resolution, three-dimensional view of forests and other vegetation types. It uses laser pulses to create a digital elevation model of the terrain and the objects on it, which has the potential to revolutionise the way we monitor and manage forests and other vegetation types. It can also be used to create highly detailed maps of forests and other vegetation types, which can be used to identify areas of high biodiversity, as well as to monitor changes in vegetation over time. It can also penetrate dense vegetation, such as forests, to provide a detailed view of the underlying technology is used to identify areas that are at risk of erosion, landslides, or other natural hazards. It can also be used to identify areas that are suitable for forest roads, trails, and other infrastructure, while minimising disturbance to the surrounding environment. However, it has some limitations, such as being affected by atmospheric conditions and having to be carefully processed and analysed. Despite these limitations, lidar has the potential to revolutionise the way we monitor and manage forests and other vegetation types by providing accurate and detailed information on the height, density, and structure of trees and other vegetation. As lidar technology continues to improve and become more widely available, it is likely to become an increasingly important tool in the field of forestry and vegetation reading How to Choose the Right LiDAR Sensor for Your ProjectRadar ApplicationsRadar technology has been utilised in various industries and applications due to its ability to detect objects, measure distances, and determine velocities. Some of the key radar applications includeAviation and Air Traffic ControlOne of the most well-known applications of radar is in aviation and air traffic control. Radar systems are used to monitor the positions and speeds of aircraft, both on the ground and in the air. This information is crucial for maintaining safe separation between aircraft and ensuring the efficient management of airspace. Ground-based radar systems, such as primary and secondary surveillance radar, help air traffic controllers track aircraft, while airborne radar systems enable pilots to navigate and avoid weather hazards, such as thunderstorms and technology has revolutionised the way in which planes fly, providing accurate and timely information about the position, altitude, and speed of aircraft. It works by emitting radio waves from a transmitter, which then bounce off objects and return to a receiver. In recent years, technological advancements have allowed for the development of more advanced radar systems, such as the Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast ADS-B technology, which enables aircraft to transmit their position, altitude, and velocity to ground-based receivers. However, it is not without its limitations, such as its inability to detect non-metallic objects, such as plastic or wood, making it difficult for air traffic controllers to manage their flight paths. In conclusion, the use of radar technology in aviation and air traffic control has been critical in enhancing safety, reducing delays, and improving Navigation and SurveillanceRadar is widely used in the maritime industry for navigation and surveillance. Ships are equipped with radar systems to detect other vessels, obstacles, and navigational aids, such as buoys and lighthouses. This information is vital for safe navigation, particularly in congested shipping lanes and poor visibility conditions. In addition, coastal radar systems are used to monitor maritime traffic and detect potential threats, such as unauthorised vessels or illegal activitiesRadar technology has revolutionised the way ships navigate, providing accurate and timely information about the position, speed, and direction of other vessels in the vicinity. It works by emitting radio waves from a transmitter, which then bounce off objects and return to a receiver. It can also provide accurate and reliable information in adverse weather conditions and identify potential hazards in the water. Recent technological advancements have allowed for the development of more advanced radar systems, such as the Automatic Identification System AIS technology, which enables ships to transmit their position, speed, and other information to other vessels and shore-based stations. However, it is not without its limitations, such as its inability to detect non-metallic objects, such as wooden boats or buoys. Despite these limitations, ongoing advancements in radar systems will continue to improve maritime transportation and ensure safe and efficient navigation on the Forecasting and MeteorologyMeteorological radar systems play a critical role in weather forecasting and monitoring. These systems can detect and track weather phenomena, such as precipitation, storms, and tornadoes, providing real-time information on their location, intensity, and movement. This data is essential for issuing accurate weather forecasts and warnings, helping to protect lives and property from severe weather technology has revolutionised the way meteorologists gather data, providing accurate and timely information about precipitation, storm systems, and other weather patterns. It works by emitting radio waves from a transmitter, which then bounce off objects and return to a receiver. One of the critical benefits of using radar in weather forecasting and meteorology is its ability to provide detailed information about the intensity and movement of storms. Additionally, it can identify potential hazards associated with weather events, such as lightning strikes, hail, and tornadoes. Recent technological advancements have allowed for the development of more advanced radar systems, such as Doppler radar it is not without its limitations, such as its inability to detect clouds or precipitation that are too small or too far away. In conclusion, the use of radar technology in weather forecasting and meteorology has been critical in enhancing the accuracy of forecasts, improving emergency response, and helping to save and DefenseRadar has been a fundamental technology in military and defence applications since its inception. Radar systems are used for a wide range of purposes, including surveillance, target detection and tracking, missile guidance, and air defence. Advanced radar technologies, such as synthetic aperture radar SAR and inverse synthetic aperture radar ISAR, enable high-resolution imaging and target recognition, providing valuable intelligence and enhancing situational technology has been an essential tool in military and defence applications for several decades, revolutionising the way military forces gather intelligence, detect threats, and conduct operations. It works by emitting radio waves from a transmitter, which then bounce off objects and return to a receiver. One of the critical benefits of using radar in military and defence applications is its ability to provide early warning of potential threats and provide accurate and timely information about the position and movement of enemy forces. Recent technological advancements have allowed for the development of more advanced radar systems, such as Synthetic Aperture Radar SAR technology, which uses radar signals to create high-resolution images of the ground, allowing military forces to gather intelligence and plan operations with greater precision. However, it is not without its limitations, such as its susceptibility to interference from natural and human-made sources, as well as its expense and requires significant training and expertise to operate Safety SystemsRadar technology is increasingly being integrated into automotive safety systems to improve vehicle safety and support the development of advanced driver assistance systems ADAS and autonomous vehicles. Radar systems can detect nearby vehicles, pedestrians, and obstacles, enabling features such as adaptive cruise control, collision avoidance, and lane departure warning systems. By providing real-time information about the vehicle's surroundings, radar helps to enhance driver awareness and reduce the risk of technology has become increasingly prevalent in automotive safety systems in recent years, providing a range of benefits to drivers and passengers alike. It works by emitting radio waves from a transmitter, which then bounce off objects and return to a receiver. This time it takes for the signal to return can be used to determine the distance between the object and the vehicle. One of the critical benefits of using radar in automotive safety systems is its ability to provide early warning of potential collisions. Additionally, it can enhance the performance of advanced driver assistance systems ADAS.Recent technological advancements have allowed for the development of more advanced radar systems, such as millimetre-wave radar technology, which provides higher resolution and greater accuracy. However, it is not without its limitations, such as its susceptibility to interference from other sources, its expensiveness, and its need for ongoing maintenance and reading How Radar WorksChoosing Between Lidar and RadarWhen deciding between Lidar and Radar technologies for a specific application, several factors must be taken into consideration. These factors include the required accuracy, resolution, range, sensitivity to weather conditions, cost, and or Light Detection and Ranging, and radar, or Radio Detection and Ranging, are two sensing technologies that are often compared in the field of autonomous driving. While radar systems rely on radio waves, lidar sensors use laser beams or light pulses to detect and create a 3D image of the surrounding environment. Lidar technology offers higher resolution and better accuracy compared to radar, especially in detecting small objects and in bad weather conditions. Tesla has famously opted for radar technology in its autonomous cars, while Waymo and Toyota have heavily invested in lidar systems. Both lidar and radar work by emitting signals and measuring the time it takes for the signal to bounce back, with lidar sensors using much shorter wavelengths in the range of micrometres compared to radar sensors in the range of centimetres. While lidar can produce high-resolution, long-range scans, it also has moving parts that can wear out, and its solid-state alternative is still in development. On the other hand, radar can detect objects over long distances but has lower resolution and can be affected by bad weather. Other types of sensors, such as sonar and ultrasonic sensors, can also be used in autonomous vehicles to complement the sensing technology, along with GPS and IMU. Overall, lidar and radar technologies play a critical role in the automotive industry's push for autonomous driving, and the choice of sensing technology often depends on factors such as cost, performance, and evaluating these criteria, one can determine the most suitable technology for their specific and Resolution RequirementsLidar systems generally provide higher accuracy and resolution compared to radar systems. Due to the shorter wavelength of the laser light used in Lidar, it can resolve smaller details and provide more accurate measurements. This makes Lidar particularly suitable for applications that require high precision, such as 3D mapping, surveying, and autonomous vehicle navigation. However, if the application does not demand such a high level of accuracy and resolution, radar technology may be sufficient and more and Coverage ConsiderationsThe range and coverage requirements of an application will also influence the choice between Lidar and Radar. While Lidar systems can offer a longer range than radar in some cases, they may be limited by factors such as atmospheric conditions and the reflectivity of the target. Radar systems, on the other hand, can provide consistent performance over longer distances and are less affected by atmospheric conditions. Therefore, for applications that require long-range detection or continuous operation in adverse weather conditions, radar technology may be more to Weather ConditionsRadar systems generally perform better in adverse weather conditions, such as rain, fog, or snow, as radio waves are less affected by atmospheric particles compared to laser light. Lidar systems can experience decreased performance or even signal loss in extreme weather conditions. If the application demands reliable operation in various weather conditions, radar technology may be a more appropriate and ComplexityThe cost and complexity of the chosen technology are critical factors to consider. Lidar systems tend to be more expensive and complex than radar systems, due to the higher cost of components, such as lasers and detectors, as well as the need for more sophisticated data processing algorithms. In addition, Lidar systems may require more frequent maintenance and calibration. If cost and simplicity are significant concerns, radar technology may be a more suitable RequirementsUltimately, the choice between Lidar and Radar will depend on the specific requirements of the application. Some applications may benefit from the high accuracy and resolution provided by Lidar, while others may prioritise the robustness and long-range capabilities of radar technology. In some cases, a combination of both technologies may be the best solution, providing complementary information and enhancing overall system performance. By carefully evaluating the unique needs of each application, the most appropriate technology can be selected to maximise performance and both Lidar and Radar technologies have distinct strengths and shortcomings that make them suited for a variety of applications. Lidar is useful for applications such as 3D mapping, surveying, and autonomous vehicle navigation because of its great precision and resolution. Radar, on the other hand, is more resistant to weather and can deliver continuous performance over greater distances, making it useful for applications such as aviation, weather monitoring, and collision avoidance deciding on the best technology for a given application, it is critical to evaluate characteristics like accuracy, resolution, range, weather sensitivity, cost, and complexity. In some circumstances, combining both technologies may be the ideal answer, providing complementary data while improving overall system performance. By carefully evaluating the unique requirements of each application, one can choose the most suitable technology to maximise performance and Asked QuestionsQ1 How does Lidar work?Lidar works by emitting laser pulses and measuring the time it takes for the light to travel to the target and return to the sensor. The time-of-flight data is then used to calculate the distance to the target, creating a detailed 3D representation of the How does Radar work?Radar works by transmitting radio waves and detecting the reflected signals from objects in its path. The time delay between the transmission and reception of the signal, as well as the frequency shift due to the Doppler effect, is used to determine the distance, speed, and direction of the What are some common applications of Lidar?Common applications of Lidar include 3D mapping, surveying, autonomous vehicle navigation, forestry management, geological studies, and environmental What are some common applications of Radar?Common applications of Radar include aviation, weather monitoring, marine navigation, traffic management, and collision avoidance systems in Can Lidar and Radar be used together?Yes, Lidar and Radar technologies can be used together in some applications to provide complementary information and enhance overall system performance. For instance, autonomous vehicles often employ both Lidar and Radar sensors to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the surrounding environment, ensuring safer and more efficient Radar Technology What is Lidar How Radar works

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